Flexible self-powered electronics: Materials design, structure engineering, and multifunctional integration

The rapid expansion of the Internet of Things (IoT) has driven explosive growth in the global wearable electronics market, which was valued at ∼ $70–$80 billion in 2023 and is projected to reach $138.5 billion by 2029. Wearable electronics integrate intelligent components into textiles or onto the human body, enabling seamless human-digital interactions. Nevertheless, their reliance on rigid, short-lifespan batteries severely restricts adaptability and sustainability. Self-powered technologies, which have emerged as a pivotal solution, are capable of converting ambient energy and human biomechanical energy into electricity, reducing battery dependence while facilitating device miniaturization and integration. Despite these advances, two critical challenges hinder the practical application of self-powered wearables: the inherent trade-off between device mechanical flexibility and self-powered generator energy output and insufficient stability in complex usage environments. This review focuses on the development of flexible manufacturing (inherent flexibility of materials, structural optimization), multifunctionalization, and integration, systematically summarizing design solutions to address the aforementioned bottlenecks: (1) intrinsic flexible materials design (for conductors, semiconductors, dielectrics) and structural engineering (bionic structures and artificial structures) for reconciling flexibility and performance and (2) multifunctionalization and integration for addressing the challenges of real-world complex applications. Finally, a forward-looking perspective on future development directions is provided, aligning with the goal of advancing energy-autonomous wearables for personalized healthcare, environmental monitoring, and human-computer interaction.